How is thermal energy transferred in solids?

Thermal energy transfer in solids occurs primarily through conduction. This process involves the direct transfer of heat energy from one molecule to another within a material. When a solid is heated, the molecules gain kinetic energy and vibrate more vigorously. These vibrations are passed from one molecule to its neighboring molecules, leading to a flow of thermal energy through the solid.

In contrast, convection is not applicable in solids since it involves the movement of fluid (liquid or gas) and requires the material to be able to flow. Radiation involves the transfer of energy in the form of electromagnetic waves and can occur in a vacuum, which is not relevant to the solid state where conduction is the governing process. Evaporation refers to the transition of a substance from the liquid phase to the gas phase, which is not a method of thermal energy transfer within solids. Thus, conduction is the most accurate method for describing how thermal energy moves through solid materials.